A look into history Essay Example for Free

A look into history EssayWhat would constitute a design in history called a favourable ripen? Would the prosperity seen and matt-up by people make the description adequate? Would a greater sense of freedom in the regions of the military personnel fit the description? How can we describe a well-situated Age? In the eld of the so-called gilded Era, from 1950-1973, the world saw an uncommon rise in term of addition, with global comes reaching 4. 9 percent in the diaphragm of national Keynesianism (Monthly Review). This period, however, was not an isolated 1 (Institute of Industrial Relations). The period with the highest national ripening rate, from 1935-1950, afterward an expansion in the preliminary economic period, 1918-1935, the distance amongst the two demises of the income distribution became smaller (IRI). Families of workers tried to adjust the outrage of distance from the black community by downsizing in terms of number of additions to the family and the u se of utilities (IRI). yet in order for us to fully savvy the meaning why this period in duration is called the Golden Age, we have to frame it beside two former(a) growth periods, matchless before the age and the genius just after it.It must be also noted if there were changes in the period that contributed to the growth of the succeeding growth periods. Before the Golden Age Families in the United States utilise to see how they have progressed through the years by taking a peek at their family albums, remembering the early years of their parents hard life (Bob Davis David Wessel). During the years of the Age, almost every tier of American life had been ext terminationed the benefit of a upbeat and climbing standard of existing (Davis Wessel). But again, we must peek farther than the time before this period of unprecedented growth.In the past two centuries the world has seen an era of unhampered growth (Bart van Ark). In the years between 1820 and 1997, the gross domestic product around the world rose at around 2. 2 percent on the average (van Ark). This growth rate was around s notwithstanding times the growth the world experienced from the preceding period, from 1500to 1820 (van Ark). But as time wore on, the disparity between the recipients of that high growth rate become more and more separated (van Ark). The worlds growth rate accelerated in 1870, and again at the beginning of the Golden Age, in 1950 (van Ark).Since the growth of the worlds economy grew in that time frame, it is not ti be understood that every atomic number 53 benefited from that growth in equal shares (van Ark). Great Britain, one of the atomic number 82 powers during the era, learned very well from the lessons of the founder of the capitalist system, Adam Smith (Robert L. Bartley). Smith blieved that raising the economic bar could only be done by practising free and open market principles, that traders and merchants interacting with the consumers will lead to a better share o f the economic benefits (Bartley).Agnus Maddison, widely regarded as one of the premier authorities on long-term growth, gives us some insights into the growth engines at the time (Daniel Ben-Ami). In his studies, Maddison points to the year 1820 as one the more impotant inflection periods in the study of the worlds growth (Bartley). Global GDP per capita hadd increased from $420 dollars (1990 value) to about $545 by about the year 1820 (Bartley). The period of 1913-1950 would probably be the most interesting sections of the years before the Golden Age.This period embraces the events of two world wars, the Great Depression, the economic upswing in the 1920s (Bhanoji Rao), and one of the greatest political and bloody historical events in the modern era, the loss Revolution (Irma Adelman). Both World fight one and two reversed the trends for the unrestrained movement of goods, money and migration of people (Rao). But in developing nations, the set up of these events were not felt a s much, thus mirroring the differing aspects of the Wars and the Depression (Rao).In the aftermath of the war, large influential movements had espoused the needs for reform, and the captains in the capitalist end of the world were afraid(predicate) of a return to the time of the Depression (Crotty). What should be seen however in this time before and after the Industrial Revolution was not the disparity in growth rates (Adelman). What was evident during this time was the degree that events bought leading to worldwide economic in protective covering and to the global economic framework as a a whole (Adelman). The initiatives aimed at halting the transfer ofthe economic downturn led to the adoption of very strict global trading and payment methods (Adelman). As the initiatives took hold, tariffs and other quantity restrictions were soon implemented (Adelman). Tight constraints were implemented for the regulation on the movement of workers and capital (Adelman). The value of many cur rencies tended to be overvalued (Adelman). Rampant and widespread ostentatiousness led to the collapse of international payments (Adelman). This development led to the adoption of extreme government concern as to the stability of prices and inappropriate exchange as it relates to the take of unemployment (Adelman).Shifting to the Golden Era The march toward the golden age of the worlds growth had been marked by a shift from a market-driven and guided economy to one that was basically a government managed type (James Crotty). The era of the Golden age can be characterized by one of swift and widely distributed growth, having for its foundations an increase of cook over quality of the markets dictated by the market and vented through the state (Crotty). Rather than a time of markets being centralized, it was a time alternatively of the markets being embedded in the society, the state rather than an enforcer taking on the role of a guide (Crotty).Agnus Maddison calculated that the worlds GDP rose to an average of 2. 9 percent, hitting 3. 9 percent in atomic number 63 and about 8 percent in the European classic (Bartley). The Second World War had spawned a time of demand that was pent -up during the time of the war, as capital and infrastructure was totally wiped out in japan and on the Continent (Adelman). The ascendance type of economy that was installed during the war, quickly gave way to the reinstitution of the usual framework of capitalism (Adelman).A great aid in the redevelopment of devastated Europe to get the continent up on its feet was the Marshall Plan (Adelman). With this Plan in place, the capital needs and infrastructure needed to jumpstart the economies of Europe were set in front (Adelman). It was during this time, as stated earlier, that the world was experiencing a high degree of growth (Ben-Ami). In Japan, the Golden Age and the following decades after, the land of the rising sun was identify with the traits of efficiency and the highe st levels of manufacturing standards (Terutomo Ozawa).This was exemplified by the low cost in the production of their automobiles nd electronic products (Ozawa). In Europe, the road to recovery was much simpler (Barry Eichengreen). Europe at the time underwent an almost complete transformation in the way they conducted their lives. In the middle of the century, Europes households had heat from burning coal, kept their food fresh with ice, and had no semblance even of basic plumbing. At present, they have gas-fired furnaces for heating, refrigerators to keep their food stuffs, and an endless number of electronic items that will make one dizzy.Incomes of an average European nearly went to lead times their value by the turn of the century (Eichengreen). Also, working conditions and hours steadily improved, as time at work was reduced by at least(prenominal) a third, giving a boost to the leisure time of Europeans (Eichengreen). An upswing in the rates of the life expectancy in Europes residents was enhanced by impertinently technical discoveries in health accompanied by a parallel advances in nutrition (Eichengreen). But all was not a pretty picture, as one would think. Levels of the ranks of the unemployed rose. Taxes levied on the people increased.The effects of the destruction of the environs, state repression and consumer spending limits were the order of the day under Eastern Europeans repressive regimes dominated that part of Europe for the next for decades following World War 2 (Eichengreen). But what made the road to recovery relatively easy for Europe? Europe, for its part, didnt have to plan anything new for its rebuilding it just simply rebuilt. Europe just had to rebuild the damaged or destroyed infrastructure, reinvesting in its capital stock, and redeploying the men that were in the war thrust to jobs in peacetime efforts (Eichengreen).This catch-up mentality had demonstrated itself in the utilization of technologies that were not yet in the pip eline, so to speak (Eichengreen). These were the technologies that were developed in the period between the wars, and were used by Europe to sustain its economic juggernaut (Eichengreen). But in the 1930s and 40s, Europe was thrown into an atmosphere of a depressed investment environment (Eichengreen). It was in this period that the United States gained a bit of a headway against their European counter move. The Americans had outpaced Europe in terms of overall production and levels of productivity.By utilize the Americans technology, under license, adopting their business philosophies of American mass-production and personnel management, Europe could close the gap on the Americans. Hence was born the concept of convergence, fusing the levels of per capita income and levels of productivity to that of the United States (Eichengreen). But in the generation of wealth, particularly in the aspect of its distribution, not all of Europe could say that they were given an equal share of the pie, so to speak. For example, the northern split of Europe were gaining faster than their southern counterparts.The same trend went for Western Europe, outpacing Eastern Europe. Eastern Europes woes came a failure of the central planning strategy that was common in the authoritarian governments that dominated that part of the continent. Though these are also important features of the Golden Age in Europe, neertheless the period marked an era of expand growth and change on the continent (Eichengreen). The economic machine of the Japanese economy, after the brilliant star of its economic achievements faded, had gone from one that was admired to one that was dealt with indifference, even one thrown pity (Ozawa).This was bought about by the virtues of the Japanese to regurgitate into secure positions some of the political interests rather than focusing on the concrete problems that had dogged the nations economy (Ozawa). In its early steps to climb out of the destruction wrought u pon it in the 2nd World War, Japan had adopted its diligence to a road of industrial improvement, moving from low value industrial output, gradually moving up to higher levels of value-added goods (Ozawa).But as the years passed, Japan began to remove the protection it afforded to its industries, essentially preparing them for competition (Ozawa). These industries that were left unsheltered were the ones that are the reason for the current state of the Japanese economys morass (Ozawa). Most of the world had been under the Bretton wood Agreement (Adelman). This conformity was instrumental to the reintroduction to the regime of fixed rate payments, all payments to be based on the value of the dollar (Adelman).This regime was supported by a number of international organizations with the goal of giving some form of flexibility and in the management of foreign exchange inconsistencies (Adelman). After the Golden Era, the period of another growth slowdown was about to rear its head. Af ter the Bubble burst After the Bretton Woods agreement had collapsed and countries and adopted more flexible foreign exchange rates, coupled with the skyrocketing of the price of oil, all these led to the indication that the Golden era was officially over (Rao).This was the era of the stagflation that hit the world in the mid-1970s (Ben-Ami). The Bretton agreement had become quite inadequate in meeting the liquidity requirements of most nations (Adelman). When the agreement eventually broke down, the system was replaced by a unstable, fluctuating fashion of foreign exchange (Adelman). The currencies of many countries went through a period of devaluation against the American currency (Adelman). But this was only the precursor of the coming storm.Oil prices had tripled their price in 1974, cereals doubled their prices by 1973, and gold prices doubled in the years of 1971-1973 (Adelman). Other problems were beginning to crop up for the world as the age ended. According to the global Labor Organization in its 1995 report on world unemployment, does not dispute the fact the upswing in the worlds economic standing, but it also emphasizes that the world, after the Golden Era, witnessed its GDP cut in half, and the levels of unemployment had reached levels never before seen or to be even though of during the era (Canadian Auto Workers Union).For this reason, economists divide the era into two parts (CAW). The commencement ceremony 25 years at the turn of the century has been called the Golden Era, the second part is called The Age of Permanent Insecurity (CAW). The effects of the downturn were quite visible. Growth rates had been sliced in half, good jobs were the exception rather than the norm, wages did not go up, surpluses were wiped out and social programs introduced at the end of the golden age, were rase at a slow but steady pace (CAW).Within a generation, the rate of growth fell to half its previous level, unemployment rates doubled, and decent jobs became the exception. Real wages stopped growing, budget surpluses turned into chronic deficits, and social programs which were proudly introduced near the end of the first period were dismantled in the second slowly at first, but then at an accelerating pace (CAW). The labor market in Canada and other industrialized nations also took a hit, as the unemployment rates hit 9 percent in the latter part of the turn of the century, as compared to the 4.5 percent average registered in the first half (CAW). In the United States, the Federal budget registered a budget surplus from 1946 to 1970 (CAW). In the years following the Golden Era, the Federal government has never once posted a budget surplus (CAW). The Federal government, for every dollar that it allots for programs, it pays about 63 cents of its earnings to pay for the interest of its debt (CAW). The period after the War was one of significant unheralded growth, born out of the combination of several factors (CAW).Among them was the comb ination of the development of emerging technologies tapped during the War, the retooling of the war time workplace to be reused for peacetime work, reconstruction of the war torn areas of Europe and in Japan, the demand held in check for so long after the Great Depression and the restraints bought on by the war, and the new found competitive situation that it has found with Communist states (CAW). The War had asked from the citizens a great amount of sacrifice, these sacrifices led to the demand for the upgrading for the peoples living conditions, equity and concerns for their security concerns (CAW).These concessions were won over by the labor movement from very jittery corporations (CAW). But how does this relate to the downturn of the Golden Era? After The Golden Era, what happened? The concessions that the workers had gained from the corporations had produced a contradiction for them (CAW). In the case of Japan and Europe, after they had reconstructed from the destruction of the war and had strengthened their economies, was building a contradictory effect for the corporations (CAW).Once the economies were put back on line, the competition of the industrialized countries again began once again on the uptake (CAW). This upswing of the economies of capitalist industries put some amount of pressure on the companies profits (CAW). The companies in turn tried all efforts to put up a hedge around their profits (CAW), which companies then transferred these pressures from competition on the workers themselves (CAW).Since the workers felt secure and bold enough to challenge any initiative to be pressured in the workplace, the companies transformed these workers from mainly being employees to consumers, increasing their prices to keep their profit margins (CAW). The workers, feel the pinch of the higher prices, asked the companies for the increases in their wages to match the increases that the companies imposed (CAW). This initiated the cycle of price escalation (C AW). The price increases had a negative impact on the global fighting of the corporations (CAW).As a result of such developments, inflationary pressures set in (CAW). The companies had to find ways to stay viable while contending with the workers, who were becoming hindrances to the company in terms of supervision over the workplace. As such, the companies had to choose, between the companies insatiable drive for profit and the needs of the society and the workers, the workers and society lost (CAW). Here is the start of the end of the Golden Era, where the share of the wealth began to be hoarded, rather than shared.Works CitedAdelamn, Irma. The genesis of the current global system. http//are. berkeley. edu/adelman/KEYNOTE. html van Ark, Bart. Accumulation, productivity and technology measurement and abridgment of long term economic growth. http//wzus. ask. com/r? t=pd=uss=ac=al=diro=0sv=0a30050bip=3d1c9a 4aid=A85DDAB8DCDAC466AE1809C654D7BF3Fq=%60Golden+Era%60%2C +from+1950- 1973p =2qs=0ac=24g=38d1%feF2ARgR3en=teio=6ep=eo=b=algb c=br=tp=dec=10pt=http%3A%2F%2Fccso. eldoc. ub. rug. nl%2FFILES%2Froot %2F1999%2F199908%2F199908.pdfex=tsrc%3Dtxtxurl=u=http//ccso. eldoc. u b. rug. nl/FILES/root/1999/199908/199908. pdf Bartley, Robert L. The future of economic freedom. 2000 October 16. http//www. heritage. org/Research/TradeandForeignAid/wm383. cfm Ben-Ami, Daniel. Ferraris for all. 2007 January 27. http//www. danielbenami. com/2007_01_01_ferrarisforall_archive. html Canadian Auto Workers. From False solutions to growing protest recapturing the agenda. http//www. caw. ca/whatwedo/bargaining/cbpac/96highlights/96cawconvention1. asp Crotty, James.business state-led for market led stagnation from the golden age to global neoliberalism. http//www. people. umass. edu/crotty/dymski-isn-ford. pdf Davis, Bob Wessel, David. The Golden Age the rise of the American middle class. http//www-rohan. sdsu. edu/rbutler/prosperity2. htm Eichengreen, Barry. The European Economy sinc e 1945. The new York Times 2007 March 25. http//www. nytimes. com/2007/03/25/books/chapters/0325-1st- eich. html? pagewanted=all Monthly Review. Notes from the Editors. Monthly Review 2007 Septem

Children Dealing With Obesity Essay Example for Free

Children Dealing With Obesity EssayObesity is a sensitive issue for adults so one tummy imagine how a child with obesity is affected mentally, emotionally, physically, and spiritually emotionally children have low self-esteem, mentally children argon stressed, physically children are overweight, and it affects their well- being altogether. This is why it is so important that mandating that Parent, Teachers, and the community is educated on puerility Obesity. After closely evaluating the situation and speaking to various parents, physicians, and viewing the actions of the children it has shown that all children are not Obese because of bad parenting. Obesity in children jackpot come from various medical problems in children such as a thyroid issue centre that his or her metabolism is not functioning correctly, or a pituitary gland issue meaning that he or she is growing too fast.Childhood obesity can also be genetic meaning that the child can be prone to it because of family h istory no matter what the issue or problem it is necessary that we as a community be educated and parents should involve themselves in their childs activities as well. The National Academies (2015) website recommends that the Government, families, industries, communities, and schools should support the children by showing leadership and commitment in evaluating prevention programs, food intake, make the evaluation capacity stronger by having good quality interventions. Schools can begin by monitoring students by placing cameras in the school cafeterias, and also schools and families can monitor the amount of food placed on a childs plate, fashioning sure that the plates are colorful with adequate fruits, veggies, whole grains, and dairy, caregivers and families should also monitor physical activities and the consumption of water.According to The National Academies (2015), There will be a greater likelihood of success when public, private, and voluntary organizations purposefully co mbine their respective resources, strengths,and comparative advantages to ensure a coordinated effort over the long depot (Progress in Preventing Childhood Obesity How Do We Measure Up?). In order for this policy to be analyzed, the cameras had to be viewed, attestation, and possibly re-educate everyone. It seems to be working the children are drinking more water, and eating healthier, and has included more quality physical exercise in his and her program. Parents are asking the right questions and getting more snarled as well, parents are spending more and more time with their children as the teachers.Group sessions are working because the child has begun to speak up more, and is smiling and attractive themselves more and more each session. Parents and teachers attended workshops to educate them in the maintenance and long-term prevention of obesity. One in five children are overweight, while third are obese that is why parents need to learn major factors that stimulate the deve lopment of childhood obesity. There should be some sort of consequences given if the stakeholders being parents, schools and physicians are not willing to cooperate and get involved, possibly higher insurance premium until he or she cooperates, as for the teachers and or schools, begin by minimizing the school funds, because the schools funds are to educate and make sure the child is hygienic and safe.In the conclusion the childs lifestyle, nutrition, and environment needs to intensify for the better of the child. Parents need to be more educated on the illnesses that can and will develop unless these workshops are attended. It is understandable that organic foods and even most healthy foods and beverages are expensive and are not affordable, but parents can help by baking and not frying, by not supporting fast foods schools can help by offering fruits instead of chips and junk food, offer milk instead of soda, and both parents and schools she push more water.ReferencesThe Nationa l Academies. (2015). The National Academies Press. Retrieved from http//www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11722page=70 Shi, L. (2014). entranceway to Health Policy. Chicago, IL Health Administration Press.

Reinforcement and Punishment in Our Daily Life Essay Example for Free

financial support and Punishment in Our Daily Life EssayReinforcement is a term in operant teach and conduct analysis for the delivery of a stimulus, (immediately or shortly) after a response, that results in an increase in the future rate or luck of that response. The response strength is assessed by measuring frequency, duration, latency, accuracy, and/or persistence of the response after sustenance stops. Experimental conduct analysts measured the rate of behaviours as a primary demonstration of learning and performance with non-humans.For fashion model, rate is measured as the number of times a pigeon pecks a key in a 10 minute session. Reinforcement is the stimulus, event, or situation whose presentation is dependent upon a response. B. F. Skinner, the researcher who articulated the major theoretical constructs of backing and behaviourism, defined sustenance according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurab le or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered gratifying or enjoyable whitethorn not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them).Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the explanation of bread and butter if the behaviour that immediately precedes the potential musical accompaniment increases in similar situations in the future. For example child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of cookie-requesting behaviour increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing cookie-requesting behaviour. If however, cookie-requesting behaviour does not increase, the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing.Reinforcement theory is one of the motivation theories it states that reinforced behaviour will be repeated, and behaviour that is not reinforced is less likely to be repeated. The sole criterion that determines if an item, activity, or food is reinforcing is the change in probab ility of behaviour after administration of that potential supporting. Other theories whitethorn focus on additional factors such as whether the someone expected the strategy to induce at some point, but in the behavioural theory, reinforcement is descriptive of an increased probability of a response. Primary reinforcementA primary reinforcement, sometimes called an un tallyed reinforcement, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as reinforcement and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its division in species survival. Examples of primary reinforcement include sleep, food, air, water, and sex. Other primary reinforcement, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcement. fleck this primary reinforcement is fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcement varies due to multiple factors (e. . , genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one t ype of food bit another abhors it. Or one person may eat lots of food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcement for both individuals, the value of food as reinforcement differs between them. Secondary reinforcement A secondary reinforcement, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcement, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as reinforcement after pairing with a stimulus that functions as reinforcement.This stimulus may be a primary reinforcement or another conditioned reinforcement (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcement would be the goodish from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as reinforcement. As with primary reinforces, an organism can experience satiation and deprivation with secondary reinforces. 3. 1 Increase of desire convinced(p) reinforcement A incontrovertible reinfo rcement may be used as part of a behaviour intervention plan (BIP).Unlike ostracize reinforcement, positive reinforcement are strategies used to help increase targeted behaviours in students who are experiencing academic or behavioural problems at home and school. How is Positive Reinforcement Used? Positive reinforcement helps students learn behaviours necessary to be successful academically and socially. For example, a students behaviour goal may be to increase the add up of time he stays on-task in class. Positive reinforcement would be used as a reward for improving over a level of time.Positive reinforcement includes any actions, returns, or rewards that are provided to a student and cause an increase in desired behaviour. They may include rewards and privileges that students like and enjoy. For example, a student may earn physical rewards such as school supplies, healthy snacks, or choice of free-time activities. When choosing a positive reinforcement, it is important for the IEP team to populate the child well. If possible, it can be helpful to allow the child to help choose the type of positive reinforcement he would like to earn.Examples Positive reinforcement increase a students targeted behaviours. Positive reinforcement is similar to rewards, but they are excessively intended to increase behaviours over time. They are not just a one-time reward for good behaviour. 3. 2 Drawbacks of Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement may seem to be an ideal technique to increase certain positive behaviours. Managers may be able to motivated employees using positive reinforcement techniques. However, there can be some drawbacks. First, the use of positive reinforcement techniques may result in people becoming more extrinsically motivated.Extrinsic motivation may undermine creativity. In Amabiles (1985) experiment, people were asked to write two poems. Before compose the second poem, some people were given a questionnaire in which they were asked to rank the importance of some reasons for writing. In one condition, these reflected extrinsic motivation. In another condition, they reflected ingrained motivation. In the control condition, people did not receive a questionnaire with reasons for writing. The poems in the extrinsic-orientation condition were judged to be less creative, on the average, than the poems in the control condition.Second, the ideal employee may be one who is intrinsically motivated and does not require constant supervision. Intrinsically motivated employees may be less likely to be late. They also may be more likely to excel at their jobs. Thus, positive reinforcement techniques may not lead to ideal employees in a company. 3. 3 Effect of Positive reinforcement for children Positive Reinforcement Can Improve Your Childs Behaviour Using positive reinforcement is an easy way to nix behaviour problems. You can use positive reinforcement can help you encourage your child to do everyday tasks you need her to p erform.Turning off an annoying mental strain when a child asks their parent is an example of negative reinforcement (if this results in an increase in asking behaviour of the child in the future). Another example is if a mouse presses a button to avoid shock. Do not confuse this concept with punishment. There are two variations of negative reinforcement oAvoidance conditioning occurs when behaviour prevents an aversive stimulus from starting or being applied. oEscape conditioning occurs when behaviour removes an aversive stimulus that has already started. A lot of students are unlogical about negative reinforcement.Whats the difference between that and punishment? Perhaps some examples of negative reinforcement would be helpful (remember, its reinforcement so the behavior increases, and because its negative, the reinforcement is removed after the response). Negative Reinforcement strengthens behaviour because a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the beha viour. Punishment, on the other hand, weakens behaviour because a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behaviour. Here are two examples of Negative Reinforcement 1.A rat is placed in a cage and immediately receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The shock is a negative condition for the rat. The rat presses a bar and the shock stops. The rat receives another shock, presses the bar again, and again the shock stops. The rats behaviour of pressing the bar is strengthened by the consequence of the stopping of the shock. 2. Driving in heavy traffic is a negative condition for most of us. You leave home earlier than usual one morning, and dont be active into heavy traffic. You leave home earlier again the next morning and again you avoid heavy traffic.

Polymer formulation

Polymer formulationCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONPigments atomic number 18 additives in a polymer formulation which provide unfathomable possibilities to aimers who want to differentiate their product. Legislation and uprising environmental aw arness has led to the gradual phasing out of heavy metal in constitutive(a) hues and increased usage of primitive pigments. Despite their good heat stability, light fastness, tinctorial strength and lower-ranking cost, certain organic pigments are widely known to cause signifi firet warpage in pol all the said(prenominal)hylene upchuckings (even at pigment absorptions as low as 0.1% wt).1,2 This phenomenon is especi wholey common in large thin-walled mouldings such(prenominal) as lids, bottle crates and trays.3It is oecumenicly accepted that the warpage phenomenon is caused by the nucleating effect these organic pigments have on polyethylene. They act as nucleating agents, increasing crystallizationlisation rate and altering the morphology of mouldings. Morphological potpourris cause broad(prenominal)er knowledgeable stress which entrusts to distortion.2 Adding on to the problem, different organic pigments nucleate polyethylene to different degrees, making it impossible to produce mouldings with identical dimensions using identical processing conditions when a variety of pigments are used.4Numerous attempts have already been made, with usually moderate success, to solve organic pigment bring forth warpage. They range from adjusting process parameters, mould design changes, pre-treatment of pigments, to incorporation of additional additives. A review of books in this research area showed that although some studies have been conducted to investigate the incorporation of nucleating agents to override nucleating effects of organic pigments on polypropylene, limited information of this sort exists for polyethylene. The specific mechanism behind nucleating agents overriding nucleation by organic pigments is similar ly still unclear. Therefore, it is the aim of this research to get wind the influence of nucleating agents, based on potassium stearate and carboxylic acid common salts, on the crystallizing and warpage behaviour of high density polyethylene containing cop phthalocyanine potassium pigment. differential coefficient Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Optical Microscopy (OM) bequeath be employed to follow the crystallisation behaviour of the formulations and correlations between rate of crystallisation and shrinkage behaviour leave alone also be made.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1. Nucleation and Crystallisation of Semi-Crystalline Polymers2.1.1. Crystallisation MechanismsCrystallisation involves the formation of an ordered bodily structure from a disordered human body, such as mellow out or dilute solution.5 The crystallization process of polymers is thermodynamically driven. It is governed by change in Gibbs free get-up-and-go, G.6 G = H TS (2-1)Where H is change in enthalpy, T is absolute temperature and S is change in entropy.When G is negative, crystallisation is thermodynamically favourable. This come outs when loss of enthalpy upon crystallization exceeds the loss of entropy calculate by absolute temperature. It can therefore be derived that as the absolute temperature of the system falls, the driving force of crystallisation will increase.7For a polymer to crystallise, it must adapt to the following requirements8molecular(a) structure must be regular enough to allow crystalline orderingCrystallisation temperature must be below thawing point tho not close to glass transition temperatureNucleation must occur before crystallisationCrystallisation rate should be sufficiently highA hundred percent crystallinity is not possible in polymers receivable to factors such as range of mountains entanglements, viscous drag and branching. Thus they are termed semi-crystalline. every semi-crystalline polymers exhibit a unique equilibrium thawing temperatur e above which crystallites melt and below which a molten polymer starts to crystallise. The crystallisation of semi-crystalline polymers is a two-step process consisting crystal nucleation and crystal fruit.6 2.1.2. Primary NucleationPrimary nucleation can be defined as the formation of short-range ordered polymer aggregations in melt which act as a focal centre around which crystallization can occur.9 There are three mechanisms of primary nucleation, namely, homogeneous nucleation, heterogeneous nucleation and orientation induced nucleation.102.1.2.1. homogenous NucleationHomogeneous nucleation involves the spontaneous knowledgeableness of nucleus in a semi-crystalline polymer melt when it is cooled below its equilibrium melting temperature.7 This process is termed as sporadic as nuclei are organize in timely succession.11 Creation of nuclei occurs when statistical var. within a polymer melt results in the formation of ordered assemblies of chain pieces larger than a sl suppr esser coat7 usually between 2-10nm.11 Below this critical coat, the nuclei are unstable and may be destroyed.11 Generally, super-cooling to between 50-100C below equilibrium melting temperature is minimally inevitable to achieve true homogeneous nucleation.12 The super-cooling is attributed to the goose egg barrier homogeneous nuclei are required to overcome to reach stability.7. When molecular segments pack next to each anformer(a)(prenominal) to form an embryo, there is a change in free energy, G, caused by two opposing mechanisms. The creation of new crystal surface increases free energy (S is negative) period the reduction in volume of the system decreases free energy ((U+pV) H is negative). The two opposing mechanisms lead to a size-dependent free energy curve which defines critical nucleus size.13 A small embryo has high surface to volume ratio and so G is positive in other words, crystal appendage is not thermodynamically favourable.13,14 However as nuclei grow, the s urface to volume ratio decreases up to a point where volume change outweighs the creation of new surface and change in free energy decrease crystal growth becomes increasingly probable. This point is defined as critical nuclei size and above this point, the energy barrier is overcome.13,14 Eventually when G becomes negative, nuclei are thermodynamically stable, paving the way for further growth into lamellae or spherulites.14The minimum number of unit of measurement cells required to form a stable nuclei decrease when temperature decrease, due to a reduction in energy barrier. In other words, the rate of homogeneous nucleation increases when temperature of the polymer decreases.72.1.2.2. mixed Nucleation In practice, cardinal usually observes heterogeneous nucleation and not homogeneous nucleation.15 heterogenous nucleation involves the formation of nuclei on the surface of foreign bodies present in the molten phase of a semi-crystalline polymer. The foreign bodies can take the f orm of adventitious impurities such as dust particles or catalyst remnants, nucleating agents added on purpose or crystals of the corresponding material already present in the molten phase (self-seeding).7,8 The presence of foreign bodies greatly reduces the energy barrier for the formation of stable nuclei. This reason for this is, polymer molecules which solidify against pre-existing surfaces of foreign bodies create less new liquid/solid interface than the same volume of polymer molecules forming a homogeneous nucleus.6 In turn, critical size of nuclei is small in heterogeneous nucleation as compared to homogenous nucleation so that heterogeneous nucleation always occurs at lower supercooling.16 Foreign bodies with crystallographic spacings matching the semi-crystalline polymer are especially powerful heterogeneous nucleating agents. Favorable nucleation sites include crystal grain boundaries, cracks, discontinuities and cavities.72.1.2.3. Orientation-Induced NucleationOrienta tion-induced nucleation is caused by some degree of molecular alignment in the molten phase of a semi-crystalline polymer. Molecular alignment reduces the entropy difference between the molten and crystalline state of the polymer. This kind of nucleation is important in various processes such as fibre melt-spinning, film-forming and barb moulding. In these processes, polymer melt is sheared before and during crystallisation.8,172.1.3. Crystal Growth2.1.3.1. Primary CrystallisationPrimary crystallisation occurs when melt of a semi-crystalline polymer is cooled below its equilibrium melting temperature. It involves molecular segments depositing onto the growing face of crystallites or nuclei. The resultant crystal growth occurs along the a and b axes, relative to the polymers unit cell. These additions of molecular segments can occur through two mechanisms tight fold adjacent re-entry or independent deposition (illustrated in infix 2.3).6 Tight fold adjacent re-entry requires that c hain stems be laid down continuously from a single polymer molecule in a series of hairpin bends until its length is exhausted. This single molecule is thought to be reeled in from surrounding molten material.7 This mechanism requires that molecular motions along the polymer molecules contour length to be several times faster than the rate of crystal growth. On the other hand, the independent deposition mechanism tho requires localized motion of molecular segments. Molecular segments only need to re-organise sufficiently to align with molecular segments at the crystallite face.6tight fold adjacent re-entryindependent deposition62.1.3.2. Secondary CrystallisationAfter a semi-crystalline polymer is cooled to room temperature, crystallisation is still thermodynamically favourable but cut back by the low mobility of molecular segments in its amorphous regions. Over an extended period of time, which can span from hours to weeks, re-arrangement of molecular segments within amorphous reg ions can lead to further crystal growth. This process is defined as secondary crystallisation. Secondary crystallisation can take two forms either thickening of pre-existing crystallites by re-organisation of amorphous chain segments adjacent to crystallite surface or creation of new crystallites by re-organisation of amorphous chain segments in interstitial regions between pre-existing crystallites. 62.1.4. straddle of CrystallisationThe crystallisation of semi-crystalline polymers is a two-step process and therefore overall crystallisation rate is governed by both nucleation rate and crystal growth rate. two factors are highly temperature dependent, as illustrated in Figure 2.4. When temperature is just below equilibrium melting point, there exists a meta-stable region where rate of nucleation is low as nuclei that are formed dissolve easily due to high thermal motions.8 As super-cooling increases, thermodynamic conditions become more favourable and rate of nucleation increases and reaches a upper limit near the glass transition temperature. On the other hand, kinetic conditions are less favourable as super-cooling causes viscosity to increase. This results in a shift in maximum rate of crystal growth to higher temperatures where viscosity decrease is balanced by formation of nuclei.8,18Overall crystallisation rate at a given temperature is usually expressed as the inverse of time needed for half of the crystals to grow in the polymer (1/ t1/2).8When crystallisation occurs under isothermal conditions, its progress can be expressed by the Avrami equation8Xc(t) = 1 exp (-K.tn) (2-2)Where Xc(t) is the fraction of material transformed at time t, n is the Avrami exponent and K is the Avrami rate constant. compare (2-2) may also be written as19ln ( -ln 1-Xc(t) ) = n ln (t) + ln K (2-3)So that n and K may be obtained by plotting ln ( -ln 1-Xc(t) ) against ln (t) n is the peddle mend ln K is the y-intercept.19The value of the Avrami exponent, n, is dependent o n mechanism of nucleation and geometry of crystal growth. Theoretical values of n corresponding to different nucleation modes and crystal growth body-build are tabulated in Table 2.1.19Crystal Growth ShapeNucleation ModeAvrami Exponent (n)RodHeterogeneous1Homogeneous2DiscHeterogeneous2Homogeneous3SphereHeterogeneous3Homogeneous4Table 2.1 Relation between n and nucleation mode / crystal growth shape19When crystallisation occurs under constant-cooling-rate conditions, its progress can be expressed by the Ozawa equation8Xc(t) = 1 exp (-(t) / m) (2-4)Where (t) is the Ozawa rate constant, is the constant cooling rate (- T/t) and m is the Ozawa exponent.Equation (2-4) may also be written asln ( -ln 1-Xc(t) ) = m ln (t) + ln (t) (2-5)So that m and (t) may be obtained by plotting ln ( -ln 1-Xc(t) ) against ln (t) m is the set up while ln (t) is the y-intercept.Qiu et al. combined the Avrami and Ozawa equations to make a connection between the Avrami and Ozawa exponents20log = log F(T) a log t (2-6)Where a = n/m and the kinetic form F(T) = ((t) / K)1/m. At a given degree of crystallinity, a plot of log against log t will replication a and log F(T) as the slope and y-intercept respectively.202.2. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)2.2.1. Chemical Structure, Crystallisation Rate and MorphologyHigh density polyethylene, HDPE, is a semi-crystalline polymer made up of repeat units (C2H4)n and has a general form as illustrated in Figure 2.5. It consists mainly of unbranched molecules with very few defects to disrupt its linearity or hinder crystalline packing. As such, HDPE has a high rate of crystallisation, degree of crystallinity and density (0.94-0.97 g/cm3).7 Being a semi-crystalline polymer, HDPE exhibits a three-phase morphology consisting of submicroscopic crystals surrounded by a non-crystalline phase comprising a part ordered layer adjacent to the crystals and disordered material in the intervening spaces. This is illustrated in Figure 2.6.7The unit cell of HDPE, defined as the smallest arrangement of its chain segments that can repeat in three dimensions to form a crystalline matrix, is orthorhombic a cuboid with each of its axes having different lengths while the angles of adjoining faces are all 90. Each unit cell is made up of two ethylene repeat units a complete unit from one chain segment and parts of four others from surrounding chain segments.7 Bank and Krim21 report that the a, b and c axes of a polyethylene unit cell are of dimensions 7.417, 4.945 and 2.547 respectively. This is illustrated in Figure 2.7.orthogonal view,view along c-axis7HDPE unit cells pack together in a three dimensional array to form small crystals known as crystallites. Most commonly, crystallites of HDPE take the form of lamellae crystallites with a and b dimensions that are lots greater than their c dimensions. Lamellae thicknesses are usually between 50 to 200 while lateral dimensions can range from a few hundred angstroms to several millimetres. Figu re 2.8 illustrates a HDPE lamella.7Various models have been proposed to explain the arrangement of molecular handcuffs in lamellae. They include adjacent re-entry with tight folds, switchboard, loose loops and a model with combined features (illustrated in Figure 2.9). As molecular length of HDPE is known to be many times greater than lamellae thickness, all models indicate some form of chain folding. However, they differ in their specific nature of folding.7d) composite model7In HDPE, the close to common large scale-structures composed of crystalline and non-crystalline regions are known as spherulites. A spherulite consists of lamellae growing outward radially from a common nucleation site. As this growth advance into amorphous molten polymer, local inhomogeneities in concentrations of crystallisable segments will be encountered. This causes the folded chain fibrils to inevitable twist and branch. As illustrated in Figure 2.10a, a spherulite will resemble a sheaf in its early st age of festering. Fanning out of the growing lamellae will concomitantly produce a spherical structure but true spherical symmetry is never achieved due to impingement of neighbouring spherulites. This growth of spherulites also involves the segregation of non-crystalline materials into regions between lamellar ribbons. Thus the overall structure of a spherulite consists of kinky and branched lamellae with polymer chains well-nighly perpendicular to their long axis and amorphous regions (illustrated in Figure 2.10b).222.3. Organic Pigments2.3.1. Copper Phthalocyanine Pigments Copper Phthalocyanine GreenCopper phthalocyanines are a class of organic pigments which dominate the sectors of unconsolable and squirt coloration of polymers. This dominance can be attributed to desirable properties such as high tinctorial strength, undimmed hues, excellent light and weather fastness excellent heat stability and good chemic resistance.23 In addition, in spite of its structural complexi ty, this class of pigments is crummy as they are manufactured in high yield from low cost starting materials.24The parent compound of slovenly person phthalocyanine pigments is extremely easy to attire a phthalic acid derivative is condensed with a source of nitrogen such as urea and a bruiser salt such as cupric chloride in the presence of a metal catalyst such as vanadium or molybdenum. This is usually done in organic solvents, at high-minded temperatures (approximately 200C) and sometimes under increased pressure. The resultant crude copper phthalocyanine (yields of over 90%) is purified commercially by one of several processes salt attrition, solvent-free salt attrition, acid pasting and acid swelling.3,25Figure 2.11 illustrates the chemical structure of the copper phthalocyanine parent compound. It consists of a tetrabenzoporphyrazine nucleus containing a central copper atom. The planar molecule is in the form of a quadratic shape with length and thickness of 1.3nm and 0.3 4nm respectively.27 This parent copper phthalocyanine compound, which is characterised by unsubstituted benzene rings, is used as blue pigment. Copper phthalocyanine blue is polymorphous and exists in five crystal forms. Out of the five, the two of commercial importance are the alpha and of import forms while the other three are distorted forms.27 Different crystal forms bring about a variation in the blue shade. Alpha crystals exhibit a bright-red-shade blue while beta crystals exhibit a immature-shade blue.26C.I. pigment green 7, b) C.I. pigment green 36 (3y), C.I. pigment green 36 (6y)28Copper phthalocyanine green, the pigment of interest in this project, is produced from the copper phthalocyanine blue by replacing the hydrogens on the four benzene rings with halogens. Unlike its blue counterpart, where variation of shade is achieved by modification of crystal form, variation in the green shade is controlled by degree of chlorination or bromination. Copper phthalocyanine green only has one known crystal form.26 The two types of copper phthalocyanine green pigments are colour index (C.I.) pigment green 7 and colour index (C.I.) pigment green 36. C.I. pigment green 7 is a blue-shade green made by introducing thirteen to fifteen chlorine atoms to replace hydrogens in the benzene ring of the copper phthalocyanine blue molecule (illustrated in Figure 2.12(a)). C.I. pigment green 36 is a yellow-shade green made by gradual replacement of chlorine atoms in C.I. pigment green 7 with bromine atoms. The most brominated C.I. pigment green 36, known as 3y, has an extreme yellow shade (illustrated in Figure 2.12(c)) while the least brominated C.I. pigment green 36, 6y, has a much more bluish shade (illustrated in Figure 2.12(b)).28The outstanding tinctorial and fastness properties of both copper phthalocyanine green pigments allow their application under the harshest conditions. They can be used effectively in masstone tints and shades down to the very palest depth. B oth green pigments can be processed at temperatures in excess of 260C with little colour change. They have even better chemical and colour stability than copper phthalocyanine blues. On comparison, C.I. pigment green 7 is preferred over C.I. pigment green 36. The latter is weaker and more opaque and accounts for less than 5% of copper phthalocyanine greens used in the polymer industry.32.3.2. Effect of Copper Phthalocyanine Green and separate Organic Pigments on Properties and Crystallisation Behaviour of Moulded PolyolefinsAlthough the combination of spectacular performance and low cost make copper phthalocyanine green ideal pigments, its use is not without challenges. It is widely known that copper phthalocyanine green and a few other pigments can cause unacceptable levels of shrinkage and warpage in moulded parts of polyolefins.2,29 The problem persists even at pigment concentrations as low as 0.1% wt.2 Shrinkage can be described as reduction in moulded part dimensions in recog nition to mould cavity dimensions.30 Warpage is a measure of out-of-plane distortion and commonly arises from the relaxation of disturbed residual stress in a moulded part or unbalanced shrinkage in flow and transverse direction.30The early work of Turturro et al.2 demonstrated that this shrinkage and warpage phenomenon is only limited to organic pigments. It was reported that no distortion occurred in HDPE mouldings containing inorganic pigments such as BBS red (cadmium selenide), 21 M yellow (blend of PbCrO4, PbSO4 and PbMoO4) and 500 L yellow (complex of Ni and Ti). Findings from later studies by Bugnon et al.31 and Suzuki Mizuguchi29 are in good agreement. Suzuki Mizuguchi29 reported similar observations when they incorporated inorganic pigments, TiO2, Fe2O3 and Cd Y into HDPE and PP. Using scanning electron microscopy, Bugnon et al.31 were able to show that when inorganic pigments such as CdS or CrTiO4 are incorporated into HDPE, there is no interaction between pigment surfa ce and polymer. The polymer essentially builds a cavity around the pigment. On the other hand, an organic pigment of diketo-pyrrolo-pyrrole chemistry was found to blend into the HDPE matrix. This led them to propose that inorganic pigments do not induce shrinkage and warpage as their chemical constitutions and polar hydrophilic surfaces have no interactions with polymers and do not influence their crystallisation behaviour.It is generally agreed that the shrinkage and warpage of polyolefins induced by copper phthalocyanine green and other organic pigments is associated with the nucleating effect these compounds have on the polymers.2,29,31 These compounds provide a foreign surface that reduces the free energy of formation of a new polymer nucleus.27 Vonk32 was one of the first few individuals who pointed out that organic pigments can act as nucleating agents for polyethylene. The nucleating effect of organic pigments on polyolefins has since been the focus of intensive studies over the years. The key literature identified from this research area is that produced by Koh33 for Clariant (Singapore) Pte Ltd. Koh33 studied the influence of C.I. pigment green 7 and C.I. pigment green 36 on the crystallisation and properties of HDPE. It was reported that the high level of differential shrinkage in HDPE mouldings incorporated with copper phthalocyanine greens was accompanied by increased crystallisation rate, increased peak / aggression crystallisation temperature and reduced spherulite size. These findings clearly indicate that copper phthalocyanine green can act as a nucleating agent for HDPE. It was also reported that increasing pigment concentration will cause an increase in crystallisation rate and level of differential shrinkage.Kohs33 findings are in line with those from similar studies carried out by Turturro et al.2, Suzuki Mizuguchi29 and Silberman et al.34 Turturro et al.2 observed a similar nucleating effect of copper phthalocyanine green on HDPE with th e aid of depolarisation and dilatometry techniques. In addition, they found that the Avrami exponent value of HDPE decreases with increasing concentration of copper phthalocyanine green which indicates a shift in morphology, away from the spherulitic one characteristic of pure polyethylene. They proposed that the strong nucleating effect of copper phthalocyanine green causes only the development of fibrils in HDPE, which subsequently do not organise into spherulites. Interestingly, they also found that pigments do not affect the absolute level of crystallinity in HDPE implying that these compounds affect only the kinetics and not the thermodynamics of the crystallisation process.2 Suzuki Mizuguchi29 and Silberman et al.34 showed that, apart from HDPE, copper phthalocyanine green can also act as a nucleating agent for PP. Moreover, Silberman et al.34 found that the addition of copper phthalocyanine green into PP would increase its lamellar size and decrease the activation energy (Ua ct) of its crystallisation process. The explanation they put forward for these observations was based on the specific chemical structure of the pigment. The symmetry of nitrogen in the copper phthalocyanine green molecule, with an absence of complex structures was thought to promote the dynamic adsorption of PP molecules on the pigment surface and the subsequent crystallisation process. This will lead to the formation of a perfect crystal structure of large lamellar size. Together, the works from all three authors demonstrated that, besides copper phthalocyanine green, organic pigments of anthraquinone, perylene, quinacridone, copper phthalocyanine blue and condense azo chemistries can also act as nucleating agents for polyolefins.2,29,34At this point, with the aid of various papers, it is established that shrinkage and warpage of polyolefins induced by copper phthalocyanine green and other organic pigments are associated with these pigments serving as nucleating agents for the poly mer. However the specific mechanism correlating nucleating effect and shrinkage or warpage has yet to be discussed. Both Turturro et al.2 and Suzuki Mizuguchi29 proposed the same explanation for this phenomenon. In a moulding process such as injection moulding, the quench rate is not the same at different parts of the polymer. Polymer melt in contact with mould walls crystallise and freeze very quickly, which results in crystals of low perfection with polymer chains orientated in the direction of flow. This layer of imperfect crystals in turn impedes heat exchange between polymer melt in the core regions and the mould walls. As a result, polymer melt in the core regions cool slowly and give rise to regular crystals. As the surface freezes very quickly, contraction in the core regions due to crystallisation will produce stress in the frozen outer layer and cause distortion. In addition, relaxation of oriented regions after removal of polymer from the mould will also cause internal stress and lead to distortion. The presence of a strong nucleating agent such as copper phthalocyanine green will limit the time available for oriented chains to recover during cooling and also increase the thickness of the skin layer. Both factors will lead to more pronounced distortion.2,29Apart from altering the shrinkage and warpage behaviour of polyolefins, the nucleating effect of copper phthalocyanine green and other organic pigments is thought to also have a attach influence on the mechanical properties of polyolefins. An investigation of how certain organic pigments affect the mechanical properties of HDPE was undertaken by Lodeiro et al.1 They found that tested pigments, copper phthalocyanine blue and irgalite yellow do affect the principal mechanical properties of HDPE. In concomitant, it was observed that the presence of small amounts of phthalocyanine blue in HDPE is sufficient to cause an increase in ductility, reduction in Youngs modulus (up to 10%), reduction in yi eld stress and increase in failure strain. They attributed these consequences to smaller and more numerous spherulites induced by the pigment smaller spherulites in larger numbers, each surrounded by amorphous material, results in a polymer that will deform more readily and have lower yield stress and higher failure strain.2.4. Nucleating Agents2.4.1. Heterogeneous Nucleation of Polyethylene Nucleating Agents Based on Potassium Stearate and Carboxylic Acid SaltsNucleating agents have traditionally been added to semi-crystalline polymers to enhance processing and end product characteristics. The incorporation of these compounds results in shorter cycle time as they increase the crystallization rate of semi-crystalline polymers, ensuring faster solidification from the melt upon cooling. Their addition also results in the formation of smaller spherulites in semi-crystalline polymers. This change in spherulite size improves mechanical properties (such as tensile strength, hardness and m odulus) and optical properties (such as haze and transparency).8,35Polyethylene, and in particular high density polyethylene, has an extremely fast rate of crystallization, which makes it very hard to nucleate.8,35 This is probably the reason why little has been published on its nucleating agents. That being said, a handful of nucleating agents have been identified to date. Together, the works of Solti et al. and Ge et al. showed that benzoic acid, talc and Na2CO3 can effectively nucleate polyethylene.8 Besides the use of particulate or low molecular weight nucleating agents, polyethylene can also be nucleated by epitaxial crystallization on another polymer substrate. Loos et al. was able to demonstrate the melt crystallisation of LLDPE on oriented HDPE.8Potassium stearate is another nucleating agent tha

The Benefits of Information Technology in Education

The Benefits of Information Technology in EducationThe present era is an era of engine room. Everywhere we argon surrounded with technological devices and every unrivaled is just abouthow familiar with applied science. The foundation of tot altogethery types of technology is laid down in educational institutions. The education in secondary level plays an essential role since it is responsible for the break upment of society. Therefore, secondary education croupe be made more effective by the handling of technology and all(a) resources made available through technology.This introduces us to the term Educational Technology. The word was recognised in 1967 with the establishment of National Council for Educational Technology in the coupled Kingdom.1N. Venkataiah in his book Educational Technology noted that For different reasons educational technology perhaps will perform support or enriching role congress to classroom teaching in college and University rather than serving a replacing for much(prenominal) instruction.2Every technology has its merits and limitations and no one technology is useful for all types of learning.2.2 Benefits of development technology in the learning contextWe outhouse talk of many benefits and criticism related to the use of technology in education. First we ar going to deal with hardly a(prenominal) advantages of making use of technology in the learning context.Technology in the learning process can increase students motivation. development processing system based education can give immediate feedback to student and the right answers. Moreover a figurer can give student motivation to hap write learning, since a computer is patient and non-judgemental. According to James Kulik, who studies the forte of computers utilise for leaning, students usually gain more in less judgment of conviction when receiving computer-based instructions and they take in up more positive approach to the subject learned.3The American educ ator, Cassandra B. Whyte thought that successful academic performance in the future will depend on how computer usage and information technology would become important in the education experience of the future.4Educational technology provides the way for students to be active participants in their learning and to present differentiated questioning approaches. It expands individualized education and encourages the progress of personalized learning plans. Students atomic number 18 encouraged to use mul clipdia components and to integrate the intimacy they achieved in innovative ways.52.3 Criticism to Learning TechnologyAlthough technology in the classroom does have many benefits, there are clear shortcomings as well. non having proper training, limited access to enough quantities of a technology, and the additional time required for many running of technology are just a few reasons that technology is often not used widely in the classroom.Similar to learning a peeled task, special training is vital to ensure effectiveness when exploitation things like technology. Training is a must when dealing with technology and education. Since technology is not the end goal of technology, but a means to be more effective in learning, educators must having a good grasp of the technology they can use or they are using and its advantages over the tralatitious means. If there is a lack of training, the use of technology will not give the all the good results that are given when technology is being used correctly.An opposite difficulty that which might arose when using technology for teaching/learning is the access to an enough amount of resources. Many teachers use technology by using a projector or screen, to show picture or videos, since there are not enough computers available for the students in order to be used by them and create or use it during the lesson. This as well as occurs when there is limited amount of access to technology because of high cost of technology and the fear of damages. There other cases when there the inconvenience of resources in such cases, such as having to transport the whole class to a computer lab or media room.6One of the disadvantages of using technology in education is that it is time consuming. Teachers had to prepare not only when their lesson plans but had to prepare these resources using technology, which for teachers not familiar with technology can be a bit of headache.Another major issue which arise is that technology is too fast evolving. New resources have to be designed whenever the technological platform is changed. Changing for many times is not possible because of expenses and therefore there is the need to train teachers in order to k instantly how to use new technologies.7 entirely even there are all these disadvantages, one had to continue support the use of technology while investing in training of teachers, creating resources and made them available.2.4 Technologies of information and their im plementation in learningIn this part we are going to deal with some of the technologies of information available that can be used in education. While observing their strengths and weaknesses, we are going to evaluate their implementation in the teaching/learning context.Interactive WhiteboardAn interactional whiteboard is a large display affiliated to a projector and a laptop/computer. By using a pen, stylus or finger users can control what is seen on the display through these tools. So, by touching the screen one manages and controls the computer.Through a pen/stylus the user can calibrate the system if necessary, activate programs, buttons and menus found on the computer which is connected to the interactive whiteboard. If the user wants to enter text, can either support use of on-screen keyboard or else can utilize handwriting by using the pen/stylus.As technology and software programs are continuing to develop, there is an increase in interactivity, since interactive whitebo ards are being supplied with software programs that provide all necessary tools and functions which can give the capacity to produce virtual edition of paper flipcharts with pen and highlighter options. Such softwares as well include tools like protractors, rulers and compasses to make use of tralatitious teaching tools, since students are more familiar with and more available to use.8Interactive whiteboards are being used in many schools as a replacement for the traditional whiteboards or flipcharts or video/media systems. Interactive whiteboards can be used to connect to online shared annotations and drawing environments. The software helps teacher to keep electronic records of their note for later use. Also, teacher can record their instruction which they had done during the lesson on the interactive whiteboard, which can be saved as a digital video format and then can post this material for review and revision by the students. This is an advantage for the students to see a rev ision of what had been done in school, especially when something was not understood well, when they are absent or when they want to revise for examination. Some software programs used with interactive whiteboards allow also the transcription of the teachers voice.9Obviously the main advantage of this technology is interactivity as the name reflects. Students also by the help of the teacher can make use of the interactive whiteboard during the lesson, to aim picture, drawing, write and more.Research by Glover and Miller on the impact of interactive whiteboards in secondary schools, shows that even interactive whiteboards are a technology more than a computer, their use in schools and by teachers reflects that their potential is unrealized. According to the authors of this research the use of interactive whiteboards by teachers is made in three ways as an aid to efficiency, as an extension device, and as a transformative device.10 however if technology always is done for the benefit of humanity and to make life more easer, interactive whiteboards also were criticised by many for diverse reasons. According to the Washington Post article, published in June 11, 2010Many academics question industry-backed studies linking improved test scores to their products. And some go further. They argue that the most ubiquitous device-of-the-future, the interactive whiteboard essentially a giant interactive computer screen that is usurping blackboards in classrooms across America locks teachers into a 19th-century lecture style of instruction counter to the more collaborative small-group models that many reformers favour.11The Londons Institute of Education in a report on the interactive whiteboards says that, Although the newness of the technology was initially welcomed by pupils any boost in motivation seems short-lived. Statistical analysis showed no impact on pupil performance in the starting signal year in which departments were fully equipped.12The report also emphasi ze such issues such as the fact that teacher gives more importance to the innovative technology than on what scholars should be learning. It was noted that the focus on interactivity as a mechanical development can lead to everyday activities which were being overestimated and also that in lower-ability classes it would slow the pace of whole class learning since individual pupils took turns at the board.13InternetIn many countries and homes, the Internet and the World Wide Web in particular can be con alignred as part of the household and as common household term. This is proven by amount of reference to net in the daily life and the amount of time which people, especially those who are still studying in schools, spend surfing on the internet.14The popularity of internet had made it as an important tool in education both as a great resource and as tool in class.The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that are accessible to billions of users around the globe. It is a network of networks that is made up of so many networks which are private, public, academic, business and brass use. The internet holds a vast range of information resources and services.15When for the first time teachers were introduced to the internet, there first reaction was about the tremendous educational potentials which exist on the internet. Internet was seen as an instrument to answer the learning needs of many students since it have vast amount of resources.16The use of internet adds something new, some real value, to teaching. The internet offers a tremendous way of communication between students themselves and with experts regarding the subject they are studying. Moreover students can join groups which discuss their favourite subject to continue stir their information regarding that particular subject.17The internet can be a support when teacher using animation, pictures, maps, images and other resources. For example when studying the land in which del ivery boy lives, to which the student has never been, a virtual tour to some of the landmarks through the internet can make the lesson more attractive and interesting, since they are not only imagining what the teacher is saying about the Holy Land but also seeing how the Holy Land looks like.The use of internet is in contrast with the use of textbooks. Many of our textbooks can be considered outdated. The use of internet can gives us the opportunity to include current data in our lessons.On the other side the internet has also its weaknesses. Teaching involves human process that cannot be automated or manufactured. One important instrument of teaching is the human touch, which cannot be replaced. The innate use of internet and computer lead to lacking of human touch when computer replace teachers.18Moreover there is no solid confirmation that computers develop positively students performance, since stories of success are isolated cases. This may result due to time needed for teach ers to develop good applications to be used in classrooms. Even if the Internet improves learning, no one is yet to prove that the advantages of teaching using the Internet significantly outweigh the advantages of using other cheaper information media.Every new technology brings with it positive and negative impact. Nobody has taken time to analyze the negative impact of exposing children to the Internet may have on their social development.19Microsoft PowerPoint or other demo softwareThe use of PowerPoint during teaching has a significant amount of potentialities for encouraging more visual use and more proficient presentations, since one can put text, audio, videos, pictures, graphs and much more. PowerPoint is a widely used presentation programme which had originated in the business world but today had found also a very comfortable place in the world of teaching. The popularity of PowerPoint in educational technology stem directly from one of its famous features, that is, the ea se of use, also by those who cannot be considered as experts on computer.20Good use of PowerPoint enhances the teaching and learning experience of both teachers and the students. This is continuously create since the Microsoft Corporation which created PowerPoint is endlessly developing and adding more features to its software to make it more easy and professional look like, such as the integration of video clips and words at the same time and the use of the presenters view, in order for whom is doing the presentation to see what comes next or work with other programs at the same time. As well, the templates provided can help to make simple professional look of the presentation in order to be more effective and successful.21PowerPoint software also gives the accessibility to print what had been shown in the presentation in order for students to have a copy of the presentation shown during the lesson.Few are those disadvantages when using PowerPoint. An important element when using PowerPoint is the way how teachers should use it when they are making use of it in classrooms. Teacher should give attention to not have large amount of material on one slide which can make difficult for the students to comprehend what the teacher is actually doing in the lesson.22Video clipThe use of video clips in education is developing very faster, since time has pass on static images and pictures. Today we are developing the idea of movement in pictures and in our presentations. The fact that video editing programs are now available for everyone to use on his personal computer, the trend that is developing is to create videos to enhance more the attention and motivation of the students.This developing is made easier through websites such as Youtube.com and Vimeo.com, where one can upload his videos while others can see and download for personal use. This innovative idea had created a planet of video resources which can be use for teaching.2.5 ConclusionThe use of these availabl e technologies and others can make our teaching more effective and interesting. This use of old textbooks and methods of learning are a bit out of this world, since students are all surrounded by this new technologies which are developing very fast. This does not mean that we have to trash all old methods and textbooks but it is important to incorporate technology to make lessons more enjoyable, creative and effective.

Constantine the Great

Constantine the GreatConstantine the Great was one of the strongest and most heavy rulers in the Byzantine and roman letters Empire. He do big changes and accomplishments that make the empire greater, and more powerful such as maintaining the full size of the Roman Empire, successfully defeating his enemies and competitors, and staying in charge. Constantine made huge improvements such as outlawing ethnic sacrifice, confiscating temple treasuries, and curbing Christian heresies. -(Phillip Sherrard, 1986, Pg. 10-14)Constantine was born on twenty seventh of February ca. 272 in Naissus (Serbia). Constantine was the son of Constantius and his first wife Helen, born with the Latin Roman get wind Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinu. Constantines mother promoted Christianity, made a pilgrimage to the holy land where she collected relics, identified sacred places and built churches. His father ruled as a Roman Emperor from 293 to 306 and was the fo chthonic of the Constantinian Dynast y. Constantine, feeling neglected after when his father divorced his mother, distinguished himself as a soldier and won the affection of the army. He excelled in military exercises, was modest, and well informed. Constantine posterior joined his father, who ruled in the west. Before Constantinus died he proclaimed his son his successor (306). Constantine the Great married Minervina who either died or divorced before 307 and Fausta who was Maximians daughter. He had six children, one of them from Minervana but the rest from Fausta named Crispus, Constantina, Helena, Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans. Constantine the Great had many excellent qualities. He was brave, active, untiring, and ruled with firmness and fairness. As Constantine got older, he adopted the luxury and pomp which was introduced from the East. He wore false hair of different colors perfectly arranged, a diadem of costly gems, and a robe of silk that contained flowers made out of gold and more precious st ones. He reigned thirty years, the longest period since Augustus. Since he was converted into Christianity later in his life, he was not baptised until a little time before his death. He died on May twenty second, A.D. 337 on the way to campaign against the Persians. Constantine was buried in Constantinople. -(James Carroll, 2001, Pg. 346-372)Constantines most important achievement and greatest project was his new Rome (Constantinople, present day Istanbul). Constantine moved the capital from Rome to the Greek urban center of Byzantium. He enlarged and enriched the city at enormous expense. Massive walls and stately buildings were built, and a large chain was placed in the water to protect their new capital. Constantine the Great provided the city with a forum, a hippodrome, a circus of great size, baths, and pleasure-grounds, to make it somewhat similar to Rome. Schools and theatres, aqueducts, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, and a great number of magnificent private houses were added later on. Constantine issued special commemorative coins in 330 to honor his new city that he created. After creating this city, he began to form a new constitution for his empire. He conventional complete despotism, all the power being in his hands. He outstandingly improved this beautiful city, and made it equal to Rome in power and influence. not only did Constantine make his capital, Constantinople beautiful with trick and architecture but he also filled Trier with imperial buildings and Rome with baths, and the great arch of Constantine border on the Colosseum. -(Phillip Sherrard, 1986, Pg. 34-41)Constantines second biggest and most important achievement was being the first Christian Roman Emperor. After winning many battles, it was said that during the campaign against Maxentius, Constantine saw the rattling(a) cross in the heavens. Short after becoming a Christian he made Christianity the established religion of the state. Constantine began the process of making Christianity the religious posterior of Europe.-(James Carroll, 2001, Pg. 58-67)Thirdly, Constantine not only earned his honorific the great title from Christian historians but also because of his military achievements and victories. Besides getting the empire together under one emperor, Constantine also won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306-8 and Franks again in 313-14. Constantine the Great always believed in changing plans last minute and he would rearrange things at the battle field. Constantine had a magnificent and trained army and was trained well with strategies since he was an officer in the Roman army in 272. His army stayed loyal to him at all times during a battle or when there were problems with ruling. -(J. Lowden, 1998, Pg. 12-19)In conclusion Constantine the Great had a huge pertain on both the Roman and the Byzantine Empire and was a great loss leader during his rule. He left behind many great architecture and art. In my opinion he was probably the most important historical figure in my civilization because he brought Christianity to Byzantines and Christianity was a big part of this empire since the art and architecture was based upon it. He never gave up or showed any types of weakness during battle or other times. He was a strong leader with a strong mind who greatly changed my civilization and many around it in good ways.tReference PageCarroll, J. (2001).Constantines sword the church and the Jews a history. capital of Massachusetts Houghton Mifflin.Constantine. (n.d.).Roman Colosseum. Retrieved March 13, 2011, from http//www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-emperors/constantine.htmNorwich, J. J. (19891996).Byzantium. New York Knopf .Lowden, J. (19971998).Early Christian Byzantine art. London Phaidon.Internet Ancient History Sourcebook Main Page. (n.d.).FORDHAM.EDU. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from http//www.fordham.edu/halsall/

Observations at the Park Essay -- Observation Essay, Descriptive Essay

Observations at the ParkA cigarette butt lies next to my foot, still emitting a trace of smoke. Nearby on the dusty asphalt a pigeon waddles self-consciously, bobbing its head as if pecking the air for some invisible food. A squirrel churrs a threat to his brother, challenging him to romp.The walkway before me never becomes silent. A buzz of voices blends with the urban center soundscape of cars driving and trucks backing, swingsets squealing and sparrows chirping. A toddler, holding tightly to his sisters stroller, yells Achtung Achtung Achtung at a squirrel that crosses two inches from his foot. His mother comforts him, in German. A man sits down on the bench across from me, eyelids dropping on his creased red face as he stirs his cup of coffee.The bench I sit on is green, painted over years of dents and names scratched in wood. My backpack sits to my left with its main zipper opened just wide enough for me to extract my notebook and pen. At my amend is my suitcase. Its pockets are crammed full like the subway this morning, barely room left to breathe, creaking and comp...